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Combatting Zombie Bite Fever through Vector Control, Reservoir Research, Vaccination Program, and Community Education Programs
Methods
Links to break:
- Link between pathogen and reservoir source of pathogen (bacteria → canines: domestic dogs, feral dogs, coyotes)
- Broken with canine vaccination
- Link of reservoir to vector (tick feeding on canines)
- Broken with acaricides
- Link from transmission to human susceptibility
- Broken with human vaccination
- Link of human susceptibility to exit from host (from sick human to other human)
- There are no known ways to prevent spread of the disease after humans are already infected
Vaccinations also help to break the link of transmission to human susceptibility. Efforts will be focused initially on the Mt. Shasta area and then expanded throughout the state of California and the United States. Continual education for the public will be necessary as concerns will inevitably arise. As the vaccine is administered, incidence of the disease will also be monitored in order to track the progress of disease containment.
Additionally, the link in the transmission cycle from the reservoir to the vector, or in this case Ornithodoros coriaceus, can be broken through the use of pyrethroid acaricides. Pyrethrins are natural insecticides derived from chrysanthemums. They are less volatile than other acaricide such as organophosphates and carbamates. They can rapidly paralyze insects but when used with a synergist such as piperonyl butoxide (PBO), it can enhance the toxicity of an insecticide. Pyrethrum and PBO combined with either insecticidal soap or silicon dioxide can further enhance the effectiveness of the acaricide (Stafford 2004). Use of acaricides will allow for further control of the vector of the disease by reducing the population of ticks, thus decreasing the possibility that these ticks will feed on dogs and coyotes.
Implementation
In order to break the link between the disease-causing pathogen, Bacillus eibmoz, and the reservoir source of the pathogen, feral dogs, domestic dogs, and coyotes, we plan to implement vaccinations in order to prevent dogs from acquiring the disease. Immunization will continue until 75% of canines are properly vaccinated. The checkups for domestic dogs will stay 1 week following vaccination, but the number of trappings and blood test for coyotes will be reduced once 75% of the population is vaccinated. If there is an increase in positive tests for Zombie Bite Syndrome in canines, the vaccines will restart once again for the all of the reservoirs. The vaccine for domestic dogs will take place at the veterinarian’s office during their next annual check-up. Any domestic dogs that have been through or near Mt. Shasta must get vaccinated. The owner would have a choice between an intramuscular injection or an oral pellet as the vaccination for the dog. All vaccinations must take place at the veterinarian's office, and the owner will receive a statement on their health record that shows that their dog is vaccinated. The owner must show proof of vaccination before they are allowed to bring the dogs to Mt. Shasta. The week following the vaccination, the dog will have his blood drawn and tested for antibodies against Zombie Bite Fever. Since the coyote (Canis latrans) is primarily a wild animal, it would be the easiest to give the vaccine orally. The bait used for the vaccine will be raw meat scraps, peanut butter, or dog food (Gomes-Solecki et al. 2006). The bait will be placed in multiple parts of Mt. Shasta and Shasta County, with the most bait concentrated in hot areas where the first cases of Zombie Bite Fever were concentrated. Thirty baits will be used in Mt. Shasta and twenty used in Shasta County. In order to analyze the effectiveness of the vaccine, coyotes will be trapped every other week through mammal trapping techniques. Once trapped, the coyote will be anesthetized and tagged a certain number according to the location of the bait that was placed. Blood will be drawn and tested for the antibodies against Zombie Bite Fever. Once done, the coyote will be released back into the wild.
Timeline:
Week 1- Dog vaccination (will take about a year since vaccine will be given at yearly checkup)
Week 2- Coyotes given oral vaccine (both continued until 75% effectively vaccinated; estimated to take about 6 months to get into all feeders)
Use of Pyrethroid Acaricides and piperonyl butoxide (PBO) combined with either insecticidal soap or silicon dioxide should be given from beginning, expect regional tick populations to decline. One trial given for area-wide control is effective against ticks (Stafford 2004).
Public education will take about a year and a half
Everything together will take around 2 years
Implementing a vaccine program can give rise to several problems. One issue to taking into consideration is the recommended type of vaccine which for bacterial vaccines is inactivated instead of modified-live virus (MLV). MLV vaccines can potentially cause diseases in wild animals and lead to premature abortions (Heatley 2014). Another issue is the ways we persuade the public. There may be cases of the absence of antibodies in the vaccinated canines. A lack of antibodies does not mean there is a lack of immune response because it may only look at the humoral immune response and not the cell-mediated response (Heatley 2014). In addition, it is possible that the coyotes will not respond well to medication being placed in their food, but driven to the point of starvation, the coyotes will willingly eat whatever is available. This issue is further mollified by the use of bait, such as raw meat scraps, peanut butter, and dog food, which was previously mentioned. In this manner, administration of oral vaccines to coyotes should not be an issue.
Vaccinations aimed at reducing the incidence of the tick-borne disease in humans may not be seen a popular protocol among the public. The general public is less willing to approve of human anti-tick vaccines than for vaccines for wild animals or domestic dogs. Anti-vaccine advocates are a loud minority that use online forums and social media to spread anti-vaccine rhetoric that has little truth to the work that vaccines has done in preventing diseases. The public discussion about vaccines is way behind the technology and there needs to be an open dialogue to convince the government why vaccinations are necessary (Shetty 2010).
Another problem that may arise when implementing our program in terms of acaricides is the toxicity level that may result in its use. They may pose a threat to nearby species such as other wildlife, aquatic species, and people who are not the target of acaricides (Gupta 2014). To minimize the exposure to these species, pesticide labels must clearly carry warning signs indicating which animals are unapproved to be tested under any circumstances (Gupta 2014). Our team and any licensed applicators should be the ones who handle Pyrethroids and the proper precautions must be taken to minimize human exposure. These include wearing rain gear, gloves, and respirators that have filters approved acaricides (Gupta 2014). Taking baths and changing clothes after each pesticide exposure is an extra precaution that will prevent any acaricide residue from being absorbed in the body. The most important recommendation to adhere to is following the safety and exposure levels of acaricides in the targeted species, the wild canines.
Expected Outcomes
After the use of vaccinations, acaricides, and tick preventative measures, we expect to see populations of Ornithodoros coriaceus significantly decline. The number of cases of Zombie Bite Fever and deaths due to the disease will be far fewer. We expect Zombie Bite Fever to be controlled and the general public to be healthier and safer.
By vaccinating canines, the link between Bacillus eibmoz and the reservoir source of the pathogen will be broken, eliminating an important link in the transmission of the disease. Canines will be less susceptible to the disease, and less reservoirs for the host will keep Zombie Bite Fever from spreading as rapidly. Through the use of acaricides, we will be breaking the link from vector to reservoir, so fewer ticks will have access to canines. This will limit cases of Zombie Bite Fever. By vaccinating humans, the link between transmission and human susceptibility of the disease will be broken, eliminating possibly the most important link in the disease cycle. Even though the public’s acceptance of the vaccine is low, the vaccines are key to protection from Zombie Bite Fever. Finally, there are no known ways to prevent spread of Zombie Bite Fever after humans have already been infected with the disease and the pathogen has exited from the host. This is why we are doing everything in our power to prevent the spread of the disease in the first place.
Gaining full control of the disease may take around two years. Successfully and completely vaccinating the public and canines will take time, effort, and cooperation. Using acaricides to poison the tick population will also need time to be completed.
In addition to the above mentioned problems of vaccination and acaricide toxicity, one of the greatest problems we face is the reaction from the public due to the side effects of the vaccine. Our number one priority is the public’s health, but due to the hundreds of deaths from Zombie Bite Fever and the vaccine’s 94% effectiveness rate in preventing new cases of the disease, it is imperative that we continue to administer the vaccine. We will work with the public through educational programs to help people better understand Zombie Bite Fever and symptoms to watch for, the disease’s vector, its reservoirs, how to avoid tick bites, why acaricides are beneficial, and why vaccination will save lives. One of the best ways to educate youth on ticks is to implement a curriculum within the school system that focuses on tick-borne diseases and preventative measures, such as checking one’s skin after having been in grassy or wooded areas (Valente 2015). Workshops will take place throughout susceptible areas of California, especially Shasta County and Lassen County. Educational workshops will allow the public to become more informed and will hopefully drive them to join forces with our team.
Continuing control of Zombie Bite Fever will consist of annual vaccinations for dogs and checking coyotes for tags indicating they have been vaccinated. The people of California will continuously be encouraged to get vaccinated through educational workshops. Acaricides will also be used as necessary until the disease is controlled. If relapses occur, continued trapping and blood testing of coyotes will occur, more cautious monitoring of dogs in need of vaccination will be done, and stricter vaccination mandates will be put in place for the public. Together, we can overcome Zombie Bite Fever.
References
Gomes-Solecki, M.J., D.R. Brisson, and R.J. Dattwyler. 2006. Oral vaccine that breaks the transmission cycle of the Lyme disease spirochete can be delivered via bait. Vaccine. 24: 4440-4449.
Gupta, R.C. 2014. Overview of insecticide and acaricide (organic) toxicity. The Merck Veterinary Manual. Web.
Heatley, J.J. 2014. Overview of vaccination of exotic mammals. The Merck Veterinary Manual. Web.
Shetty, P. 2010. Experts concerned about vaccination backlash. The Lancet. 375: 970-971.
Stafford, K.C. 2004. Tick management handbook: area-wide chemical control or ticks. The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.
Valente, S. L., D. Wemple, S. Ramos, S. B. Cashman, and J. A. Savageau. 2015. Preventive behaviors and knowledge of tick-borne illnesses: results of a survey from an endemic area. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice. 21: E16–E23.
Gomes-Solecki, M.J., D.R. Brisson, and R.J. Dattwyler. 2006. Oral vaccine that breaks the transmission cycle of the Lyme disease spirochete can be delivered via bait. Vaccine. 24: 4440-4449.
Gupta, R.C. 2014. Overview of insecticide and acaricide (organic) toxicity. The Merck Veterinary Manual. Web.
Heatley, J.J. 2014. Overview of vaccination of exotic mammals. The Merck Veterinary Manual. Web.
Shetty, P. 2010. Experts concerned about vaccination backlash. The Lancet. 375: 970-971.
Stafford, K.C. 2004. Tick management handbook: area-wide chemical control or ticks. The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.
Valente, S. L., D. Wemple, S. Ramos, S. B. Cashman, and J. A. Savageau. 2015. Preventive behaviors and knowledge of tick-borne illnesses: results of a survey from an endemic area. Journal of Public Health Management and Practice. 21: E16–E23.