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Ticks are vectors of many pathogens including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths that infect humans, livestock, and pets (Diaz-Martin 2015). Several species of Ornithodoros transmit serious diseases, and control of these ticks would help in preventing and controlling the diseases they transmit (Diaz-Martin 2015). Tick control has often been a complex problem that remains unsolved, as no control method has been found that is effective against all ticks (Diaz-Martin 2015). Control of tick populations has previously been based on the use of acaricides, but acaricides have severe drawbacks such as environmental pollution, contamination of animal products, the selection of resistant tick strains, and high cost (Diaz-Martin 2015). Acaricides are also ineffective for use against Ornithodoros ticks because of the ticks’ endophilic lifestyle, meaning that acaricides may not be able to reach all of the places that Ornithodoros ticks hide (Diaz-Martin 2015). Therefore, new control methods are being sought out, and anti-tick vaccinations offer an attractive method for supplementing or replacing the use of acaricides altogether (Diaz-Martin 2015). It has been shown over the last two decades that host vaccines are an effective, suitable, and sustainable method for control of tick populations (Diaz-Martin 2015). Anti-tick vaccines have two types of antigenic targets: exposed antigens and concealed antigens (Rodriguez-Mallon 2016). Exposed antigens are proteins in the ticks’ saliva secreted during feeding on the host, and concealed antigens are those which are not identifiable by the host’s immune system (Rodriguez-Mallon 2016). Vaccines developed against blood-feeding parasites produce a strong antibody response and intense delayed type hypersensitivity cellular reaction (Trimnell 2005). These immune responses block transmission effects against tick-borne diseases (Trimnell 2005). Immune responses, cellular immunity, and inflammatory reactions are essential to mechanisms of tick resistance and vaccine development (Trimnell 2005). Overall, immunological control using anti-tick vaccines offers a bright future for vaccine development and control of tick-borne diseases (Diaz-Martin 2015). We have chosen to break the link between transmission and susceptibility by providing vaccines for Zombie Bite Fever. As multiple deaths have been occurring in California due to the tick-spread disease, we believe vaccines are the best option for control and prevention of further outbreaks.
Developing the vaccine requires identifying the tick antigens as recombinant protein. They can be taken from samples of salivary glands, hydrolytic enzymes and their inhibitors, and membrane-associated proteins. When tested on laboratory animals, the immunological effects shows that a large percentage of ticks fail to feed beyond one tenth of the normal engorgement weight. When administering the vaccine to humans, decreases are seen in the number of engorging female ticks, their weight, and reproductive capacity. This in turn will reduce the number of larval infestation in subsequent generations (Willadsen 2006).
Once the vaccine has been successfully developed and federally approved, the next step involves shipping and distribution, including customs regulations and planned frequency of vaccine deliveries to regions, districts, and health facilities. Efforts in training health workers in implementing the new vaccine is also important. The vaccine must also undergo an evaluation to monitor its performance. This is usually done by collective data from the targeted areas to see of any new incidences of Zombie fever developed (WHO 2014). The public support can also help the vaccine stay on the shelves to benefit more people. With new vaccine candidate, there will be public backlash from either the media, anti-vaccine supporters or certain businesses. Although the protocol may have been approved for safe sales and distribution, there will always be the effort to persuade anti-vaccine sentiment and class action lawsuits from withdrawing the vaccine from the market as was evident with the Lyme disease vaccine protocol. The key to a successful protocol includes communicating and educating the public, instilling public confidence and trust, and making companies aware that the vaccine has a risk-benefit profile and that it can safely be marketed to the public (Poland 2011).
Because this disease is highly transmissible, heavy vaccine implementation is necessary in order to minimize death. These efforts will first be concentrated in the Mt. Shasta area but will be expanded to all of California and the rest of the United States in humans. In order to achieve vaccination to the most efficient extent possible, a screening program will first be implemented. The purpose of this program will be to pinpoint the target population of the most susceptible individuals in order to reduce vaccine waste (Rubio 1997). All current United States residents will be tested for the antibodies to Zombie Bite Fever and prevalence will determine who is to receive the vaccine first due to being the most susceptible. A decision-making analysis program will be utilized by the CDC and the formula used will be kept under close lock and key in order to minimize controversy. Those that are most susceptible will be notified via email or mail and they will be required to provide proof from a physician that they were properly vaccinated. If proof is not provided, the United States Government will withhold their paycheck or retirement funds via the IRS. If they are a child, they will not be allowed to enroll in school unless they have proof of this vaccination, especially those who are most susceptible. In this manner, both immunity and a target vaccine population will be determined while minimizing vaccine waste and increasing effectiveness (Rubio 1997).
In order to promote vaccine implementation on a local scale, clinics will be encouraged to advocate for this particular vaccine to their patients. In addition, an incentive program that benefits clinics that administer vaccines to those susceptible in their region will be set up because it is more likely that vaccine effectiveness will be improved if there is an incentive program present (Dexter 2012). It is also more likely that vaccine administration will occur if the practitioners and staff of clinics and hospitals are vaccinated themselves, so tax breaks will be given to those clinics that demonstrate support of this vaccine (Dexter 2012).
One study tried to assess the protective efficacy of recombinant antigens in a vaccine developed to combat Ornithodoros spp. The candidate vaccine helped block the function of antigens in the form of salivary proteins such as PLA2, APY and MOU by vaccine-induced antibodies.The vaccine efficacy was calculated for each recombinant antigen based on the decreases in female survival and fertility, since these parameters are largely responsible for the size of the next tick generation and hence the evolution of the tick population. Therefore, blocking the function of salivary proteins could potentially prevent their function as anti-hemostatics at the host-tick interface (Martin 2015).
In order to monitor the success of the vaccine, we plan to collect tissue samples from reservoir hosts and humans both before and after the administration of the vaccine in order to compare the prevalence of the disease. Patients admitted and diagnosed with Zombie Bite Fever will also be continually recorded and monitored in order to track the incidence of the disease.
Our plan of action to combat Zombie Bite Fever will consist of the administration of vaccines. The primary focus will be to vaccinate the area of Mt. Shasta and proceed to vaccinate the surrounding areas, eventually expanding our efforts to the state and country as a whole. We predict that through the use of vaccines to break the link between the transmission of the disease and the susceptible host, the incidence of Zombie Bite Fever will decrease. Although we anticipate some backlash from the public as a result of the new vaccine, we believe that it offers the most immediate solution to protect people from this disease. Our aim is to continue to educate the public on the benefits and necessity of these measures.
Developing the vaccine requires identifying the tick antigens as recombinant protein. They can be taken from samples of salivary glands, hydrolytic enzymes and their inhibitors, and membrane-associated proteins. When tested on laboratory animals, the immunological effects shows that a large percentage of ticks fail to feed beyond one tenth of the normal engorgement weight. When administering the vaccine to humans, decreases are seen in the number of engorging female ticks, their weight, and reproductive capacity. This in turn will reduce the number of larval infestation in subsequent generations (Willadsen 2006).
Once the vaccine has been successfully developed and federally approved, the next step involves shipping and distribution, including customs regulations and planned frequency of vaccine deliveries to regions, districts, and health facilities. Efforts in training health workers in implementing the new vaccine is also important. The vaccine must also undergo an evaluation to monitor its performance. This is usually done by collective data from the targeted areas to see of any new incidences of Zombie fever developed (WHO 2014). The public support can also help the vaccine stay on the shelves to benefit more people. With new vaccine candidate, there will be public backlash from either the media, anti-vaccine supporters or certain businesses. Although the protocol may have been approved for safe sales and distribution, there will always be the effort to persuade anti-vaccine sentiment and class action lawsuits from withdrawing the vaccine from the market as was evident with the Lyme disease vaccine protocol. The key to a successful protocol includes communicating and educating the public, instilling public confidence and trust, and making companies aware that the vaccine has a risk-benefit profile and that it can safely be marketed to the public (Poland 2011).
Because this disease is highly transmissible, heavy vaccine implementation is necessary in order to minimize death. These efforts will first be concentrated in the Mt. Shasta area but will be expanded to all of California and the rest of the United States in humans. In order to achieve vaccination to the most efficient extent possible, a screening program will first be implemented. The purpose of this program will be to pinpoint the target population of the most susceptible individuals in order to reduce vaccine waste (Rubio 1997). All current United States residents will be tested for the antibodies to Zombie Bite Fever and prevalence will determine who is to receive the vaccine first due to being the most susceptible. A decision-making analysis program will be utilized by the CDC and the formula used will be kept under close lock and key in order to minimize controversy. Those that are most susceptible will be notified via email or mail and they will be required to provide proof from a physician that they were properly vaccinated. If proof is not provided, the United States Government will withhold their paycheck or retirement funds via the IRS. If they are a child, they will not be allowed to enroll in school unless they have proof of this vaccination, especially those who are most susceptible. In this manner, both immunity and a target vaccine population will be determined while minimizing vaccine waste and increasing effectiveness (Rubio 1997).
In order to promote vaccine implementation on a local scale, clinics will be encouraged to advocate for this particular vaccine to their patients. In addition, an incentive program that benefits clinics that administer vaccines to those susceptible in their region will be set up because it is more likely that vaccine effectiveness will be improved if there is an incentive program present (Dexter 2012). It is also more likely that vaccine administration will occur if the practitioners and staff of clinics and hospitals are vaccinated themselves, so tax breaks will be given to those clinics that demonstrate support of this vaccine (Dexter 2012).
One study tried to assess the protective efficacy of recombinant antigens in a vaccine developed to combat Ornithodoros spp. The candidate vaccine helped block the function of antigens in the form of salivary proteins such as PLA2, APY and MOU by vaccine-induced antibodies.The vaccine efficacy was calculated for each recombinant antigen based on the decreases in female survival and fertility, since these parameters are largely responsible for the size of the next tick generation and hence the evolution of the tick population. Therefore, blocking the function of salivary proteins could potentially prevent their function as anti-hemostatics at the host-tick interface (Martin 2015).
In order to monitor the success of the vaccine, we plan to collect tissue samples from reservoir hosts and humans both before and after the administration of the vaccine in order to compare the prevalence of the disease. Patients admitted and diagnosed with Zombie Bite Fever will also be continually recorded and monitored in order to track the incidence of the disease.
Our plan of action to combat Zombie Bite Fever will consist of the administration of vaccines. The primary focus will be to vaccinate the area of Mt. Shasta and proceed to vaccinate the surrounding areas, eventually expanding our efforts to the state and country as a whole. We predict that through the use of vaccines to break the link between the transmission of the disease and the susceptible host, the incidence of Zombie Bite Fever will decrease. Although we anticipate some backlash from the public as a result of the new vaccine, we believe that it offers the most immediate solution to protect people from this disease. Our aim is to continue to educate the public on the benefits and necessity of these measures.
References
Primary:
Dexter, L. J., M. D. Teare, M. Dexter, A. N. Siriwardena, and R. C. Read. 2012. Strategies to increase influenza vaccination rates: outcomes of a nationwide cross-sectional survey of UK general practice. BMJ Open. 2: 1–9.
Martin, V.D., Roman, R.M., Oleaga, A., Sanchez, R.P. 2015. New salivary anti-hemostatics containing protective epitopes from Ornithodoros moubata ticks: Assessment of their individual and combined vaccine efficacy. Veterinary Parasitology. 212: 336-349.
Rodriguez-Mallon, A. 2016. Developing anti-tick vaccines. Methods in Molecular Biology. 1404: 243-259.
Rubió, P. P. 1997. Critical value of prevalence for vaccination programmes. The case of hepatitis A vaccination in Spain. Elsevier. 15: 1445–1450.
Trimnell, A.R., G. Davies, O. Lissina, R.S. Hails, P.A. Nuttall. 2005. A cross-reactive tick cement antigen is a candidate broad-spectrum tick vaccine. Vaccine. 23: 4329-4341.
Secondary:
Diaz-Martin, V., R. Manzano-Roman, P. Obolo-Mvoulouga, A. Oleaga, R. Perez-Sanchez. 2015. Development of vaccines against Ornithodoros soft ticks: an update. Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 6: 211-220.
Parasuraman, S., R. Raveendran, and R. Kesavan. 2010. Blood sample collection in small laboratory animals. JPP. 1: 87.
Poland, G. 2011. Vaccines against Lyme Disease: What Happened and What Lessons Can We Learn? Clin Infect Dis. 52: 253-258.
Willadsen, P. 2006. Tick control: Thoughts on a research agenda. Veterinary Parasitology. 138: 161-168.
World Health Organization. 2014. Principles and considerations for adding a vaccine to a national immunization programme.
Primary:
Dexter, L. J., M. D. Teare, M. Dexter, A. N. Siriwardena, and R. C. Read. 2012. Strategies to increase influenza vaccination rates: outcomes of a nationwide cross-sectional survey of UK general practice. BMJ Open. 2: 1–9.
Martin, V.D., Roman, R.M., Oleaga, A., Sanchez, R.P. 2015. New salivary anti-hemostatics containing protective epitopes from Ornithodoros moubata ticks: Assessment of their individual and combined vaccine efficacy. Veterinary Parasitology. 212: 336-349.
Rodriguez-Mallon, A. 2016. Developing anti-tick vaccines. Methods in Molecular Biology. 1404: 243-259.
Rubió, P. P. 1997. Critical value of prevalence for vaccination programmes. The case of hepatitis A vaccination in Spain. Elsevier. 15: 1445–1450.
Trimnell, A.R., G. Davies, O. Lissina, R.S. Hails, P.A. Nuttall. 2005. A cross-reactive tick cement antigen is a candidate broad-spectrum tick vaccine. Vaccine. 23: 4329-4341.
Secondary:
Diaz-Martin, V., R. Manzano-Roman, P. Obolo-Mvoulouga, A. Oleaga, R. Perez-Sanchez. 2015. Development of vaccines against Ornithodoros soft ticks: an update. Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 6: 211-220.
Parasuraman, S., R. Raveendran, and R. Kesavan. 2010. Blood sample collection in small laboratory animals. JPP. 1: 87.
Poland, G. 2011. Vaccines against Lyme Disease: What Happened and What Lessons Can We Learn? Clin Infect Dis. 52: 253-258.
Willadsen, P. 2006. Tick control: Thoughts on a research agenda. Veterinary Parasitology. 138: 161-168.
World Health Organization. 2014. Principles and considerations for adding a vaccine to a national immunization programme.